The AD-AS Framework in ‘A’ Levels JC Economics Essays: How to Explain, Apply, and Evaluate Properly

AD-AS is one of the most important frameworks in H2 Economics for macroeconomics. Many economics students can draw the AD-AS diagram correctly, but high scoring essays go further. They explain it clearly, apply it precisely, and evaluate it carefully. A strong AD-AS essay is not just about drawing curves for a macro question. It is about using the model intelligently to answer the economics question in front of you.

You should first understand clearly what the AD-AS model represents. Aggregate Demand, or AD, shows the total planned expenditure in the economy at different general price levels, often abbreviated as GPL. Aggregate Supply, or AS, shows the total output firms are willing and able to produce at different GPLs. In Singapore economics papers, the short run portion of AS is usually drawn as a relatively flat curve because wages and some costs are sticky in the short term. The long run AS is vertical at the full employment level of output, reflecting the economy’s productive capacity.

Before applying AD-AS in an economics essay, always return to the question. Identify the command word, the context, and the key issue. If the question is about inflation, growth, unemployment, or policy, your AD-AS analysis must be tailored accordingly. 

When explaining AD-AS in part (a) style questions, clarity and logic matter more than length. Start by identifying the relevant shift. If the question describes a demand side shock, explain why AD shifts, in which direction, and through which component of aggregate demand. In this case, remember that AD = C + I + G + (X-M). For example, higher government spending increases AD via the spending multiplier, while a fall in consumer confidence reduces consumption and shifts AD to the left. If the question describes a supply side shock, from the AS side. 

Your diagram should support, not replace, your explanation. Label the axes correctly, show the initial and new equilibrium clearly, and indicate the changes in price level and real output. Then explain the mechanism in words, step by step, linking cause to effect.

If the question is set in Singapore, anchor your AD-AS analysis in Singapore’s realities. Singapore is a small and open economy with high import dependence. This affects the AD multiplier through leakages, and it affects SRAS through imported cost shocks. When discussing inflation, recognise that external cost shocks are significant for Singapore. When discussing Singapore's economic growth, consider export demand and global conditions. 

Evaluation is what separates good economics essays from normal ones. Do not stop at explaining shifts. Ask deeper questions. How strong is the effect likely to be? How long will it last? What are the assumptions? What are the limitations? For example, if you argue that fiscal policy increases AD and output, evaluate by considering the size of the multiplier, crowding out, time lags, and leakages. In Singapore, high import leakages weaken the multiplier, which tempers the impact of fiscal stimulus.

If you analyse supply side policies using AD-AS, evaluate their effectiveness carefully. Such policies may shift LRAS to the right by improving productivity, but they often involve long time lags and uncertain outcomes. Training programmes, innovation policies, and infrastructure investment can raise productive capacity, but results depend on implementation, firm responsiveness, and global demand conditions.

You should also consider alternative perspectives. An AD shock that raises output in the short run may create inflationary pressure if the economy is near full capacity. Monetary policy may stabilise inflation but worsen unemployment in the short run, while fiscal policy may support demand but risk overheating. In such cases, policy trade offs emerge. A strong economics essay recognises these tensions rather than presenting one sided conclusions.

Your conclusion should synthesise your AD-AS analysis rather than merely restate it. State clearly what you judge to be the most important factor and why. Specify the conditions under which your judgement holds. For example, you might conclude that demand side policies are more effective in the short run when there is spare capacity, but supply side policies are more important for long run growth, especially in a small open economy like Singapore.

In the final analysis, AD-AS is powerful when used thoughtfully. It helps you explain economic fluctuations, apply theory to real world contexts, and evaluate economic policy choices with nuance. When you move beyond rote diagram drawing and focus on mechanisms, context, and conditions, your AD-AS essays become clearer, more convincing, and more exam ready.

Thank you for reading and cheers.

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JC Economics Essays is my popular economics blog where I write about how to write better economics essays for the ‘A’ levels, as well as other academic levels. A former educator and economics tutor, I have around 20 years of deep experience in teaching and learning about economics. From 2007 to Dec 2025, more than 120,000 readers have visited my economics essays blog. Thank you for reading, and I hope these useful economics materials help you.

Private and Merit Goods in ‘A’ Level Economics: A Clear and Balanced Economics Essay Approach

The theme of private and merit goods is sometimes tested in ‘A’ Level Economics examinations. 

It is also an economics topic that offers ‘A’ level students many opportunities to demonstrate their strong economic reasoning.

When approached carefully, an essay on private and merit goods allows you to explain market outcomes, analyse the role of positive and negative externalities, imperfect information and incentives, and evaluate government intervention in a structured and evaluative way.

First, private goods are goods that are both rival (or rivalrous) and excludable. Rivalry means that one person’s consumption reduces the amount available for others, while excludability means that consumers can be prevented from consuming the good if they do not pay for it. Most goods traded in markets, such as food, clothing, and private healthcare services, fall into this category. 

Because private goods can usually be priced accurately in a perfectly competitive market, the price mechanism can often allocate these goods efficiently, aligning marginal private benefits with marginal private costs (MPB = MPC).

Merit goods, however, raise a different economic issue. Merit goods are goods that tend to be under consumed if left entirely to the free market (and demerit goods are goods that tend to be overconsumed if left entirely to the workings of the free market).

This is because consumers may not fully take into account the full benefits of their consumption. Education, healthcare, and vaccinations are commonly cited examples. In economic terms, merit goods are associated with information gaps, where consumers underestimate either the long term private benefits or the wider social benefits of consumption.

This idea is closely linked to positive externalities of consumption. When an individual consumes a merit good, benefits often spill over to third parties. For example, when an individual receives education, society benefits from a more productive workforce and lower crime rates. When an individual gets vaccinated, others benefit from reduced risk of disease transmission. These spillover benefits mean that the marginal social benefit (MSB) exceeds marginal private benefit (MPB). As a result, when decisions are based only on private benefit, the free market outcome leads to under consumption relative to the socially optimal level.

This results in allocative inefficiency and a potential welfare loss. (Diagrams are useful in illustrating this outcome, provided they are clearly labelled and supported by careful explanation and relevant, appropriate examples.)

Government intervention is often discussed in response to this outcome. If merit goods are under consumed, policies may be introduced to encourage higher consumption and move the market outcome closer to the socially optimal level.

Common approaches include subsidies, direct provision, regulation, and information campaigns. A subsidy reduces the price paid by consumers and raises quantity demanded. Direct provision ensures access regardless of income. Information campaigns aim to improve decision making by raising awareness of benefits.

Subsidies can successfully increase consumption and reduce welfare loss, especially when price sensitivity is high. At the same time, subsidies involve opportunity cost, as public funds could have been used elsewhere. The effectiveness of subsidies also depends on how well they are targeted. If higher income households benefit disproportionately, equity objectives may not be fully achieved.

Direct provision plays an important role in many economies. It can promote equity by ensuring universal access to essential services such as basic education and primary healthcare. It can also support long term economic development by improving human capital. At the same time, outcomes depend on administrative efficiency, funding, and service quality. Where management is effective and accountability is strong, direct provision can be highly effective in improving welfare.

Information campaigns are particularly relevant for merit goods because they address one of the root causes of the issue, which is imperfect information. Public health campaigns encouraging vaccination or healthy lifestyles can raise perceived benefits and shift demand. Their effectiveness depends on factors such as trust, education levels, and accessibility of services. As a result, information policies often work best when combined with other measures, such as subsidies or regulation.

While merit goods are closely associated with positive externalities of consumption, a well rounded argument should also recognise the role of externalities in production too. 

Some merit goods generate positive externalities during production as well. For instance, investment in research, training, and healthcare infrastructure can raise productivity across the economy. Firms that invest in worker training may improve skills that benefit other employers in the future. In such cases, marginal social cost may be lower than marginal private cost, leading to under provision by the private sector. This further strengthens the case for government support or at least coordination.

In Singapore, merit goods such as education and healthcare are supported through a combination of subsidies, copayment schemes, and direct provision. This reflects a policy approach that balances efficiency and equity. Market mechanisms are used to encourage cost awareness, while government involvement ensures affordability and access. Singapore’s emphasis on human capital development also reflects recognition of both positive consumption externalities and positive production externalities associated with education and skills development.

It is also helpful to recognise that private goods and merit goods exist along a spectrum rather than as rigid categories. Many goods have private characteristics but also generate wider social benefits. Healthcare is a good example. While it is privately consumed, it also produces positive spillover effects, such as a healthier workforce and reduced public health risks.

While intervention can improve outcomes where market signals are incomplete, policy design matters. Well targeted intervention can enhance welfare, while poorly designed policies may create inefficiencies or unintended consequences. For example, poorly targeted subsidies may lead to over consumption or fiscal strain, while excessive regulation may reduce incentives for private provision. 

It may be useful to contrast merit goods with demerit goods, such as cases involving negative externalities, even though they are conceptually different. Negative externalities of consumption, such as smoking or excessive alcohol consumption, lead to over consumption relative to the socially optimal level. Negative externalities of production, such as pollution from factories, lead to over production. These cases justify different forms of intervention, such as taxes or regulation, rather than subsidies.

In the final analysis, private goods are often efficiently allocated through markets, while merit goods tend to require some degree of policy support due to imperfect information and positive externalities in consumption and production. Government intervention can go a long way towards improving economic welfare by encouraging consumption of merit goods, but outcomes depend on policy design, targeting, and implementation.

Thank you for reading and cheers.

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JC Economics Essays is my popular economics blog where I write about how to write better economics essays for the ‘A’ levels, as well as other academic levels. A former educator and economics tutor, I have around 20 years of deep experience in teaching and learning about economics. From 2007 to Dec 2025, more than 120,000 readers have visited my economics essays blog. Thank you for reading, and I hope these useful economics materials help you.

A Simple, Practical H2 Economics Essay Writing Template

If you are taking H2 Economics for the 'A' Levels, you must understand one thing early. 

A good JC economics essay is not one that just contains a lot of economics content. 

A good economics essay is one that answers the question properly (meaning directly), clearly, and evaluatively. 

Many students do know a lot of Economics, but they might still score badly because their economics essays are generic, unfocused, and not written in a way that meets the demands of the question.

So in this post, I will share a practical, step-by-step economics essay template you can apply to most 25-mark, part (a) and (b), H2 'A' Level Economics essay questions. 

This template is written for the Singapore 'A' Level context, and it is designed to help you score by writing relevantly, contextually, and evaluatively.

Before we go into the structure, you must understand the 2026 Paper 2 format we are looking at here. 

Part (a) carries 10 marks and part (b) carries 15 marks. Questions may also be based on real world contexts. This means you must explain clearly in part (a), and then analyse and evaluate properly in part (b). This also means that you must spend more time on part (b) than on part (a). I have noticed many economics students spending more time on fewer marks and underperforming, too many to count. 

If you ignore this structure, you will misallocate time and under perform.

Before you write the introduction, check the command word and requirements. If the command word is “discuss”, you must cover both sides. If it is “evaluate” or “to what extent”, you must end with judgement based on conditions. If the question is on Singapore, your entire essay should be anchored in Singapore’s policy context and structural constraints, not generic textbook writing. Singapore is a small and open economy, with high import dependence and leakages, and a distinct macro policy framework where the exchange rate is the key monetary policy lever. If you do not integrate these features, your essay will sound like a template.

Now write the introduction. A strong introduction is short and precise. I like to use "This paper argues that" or TPAT in short. It clearly defines key terms where needed, interprets the question, and sets scope. If the question requires evaluation, signal early that outcomes depend on conditions. Do not waste time with generic openings like “Economics is important” or some quote; this is not General Paper (GP).

Now handle part (a) properly. Part (a) carries 10 marks, so start with one clear point, define the relevant concept, and explain the mechanism step by step. If a diagram is relevant, draw it and use it. Ensure axes and curves are labelled correctly , shifts are correct, and you explain what happens to the key variables and why. Give clear, relevant, appropriate examples to explain your points and suggest what happens/happened in the diagram. End part (a) by linking directly back to the question.

Part (a) marks are often lost through unclear logic and sloppy language. Economics is strict. “Increase in demand” is not the same as “increase in quantity demanded”. “Inflation” is not the same as “general price level”. If you use economics terms wrongly, you will lose marks.

Now handle part (b) correctly. Part (b) carries 15 marks. This is where most marks are won or lost. Part (b) typically requires multiple arguments, different perspectives, and an evaluative conclusion leading to judgement, meaning an opinion that you justify. 

Many economics students just write more economics content. 

Top economics students write with clearer structure and better judgement.

For part (b), build at least two main arguments. If the question is about effectiveness of a policy, analyse why it can work, then analyse limitations or costs or problems with the policy. If the question is about the main cause, consider alternative causes and weigh them. If the question is about impacts, consider different stakeholders and time horizons, like short run and long run.

Each paragraph must be complete. It should contain a point, explanation, analysis, and application. Application is critical. If the question is set in Singapore, anchor your arguments in Singapore’s economic reality. For example, Singapore’s monetary policy works mainly through the exchange rate. Fiscal policy may have weaker effects due to import leakages and a smaller multiplier. External demand matters significantly for economic growth because Singapore is trade dependent, as a small and open economy. This is how you avoid generic economics writing.

You should also analyse from a variety of economic perspectives, because this distinguishes top band scripts. Consider consumer versus producer impacts where relevant. Consider short term versus long term outcomes. Consider internal versus external effects. Consider efficiency versus equity. Consider intended versus unintended consequences. These are not optional extras. They are the building blocks of good evaluation.

Now check whether you evaluated properly. Evaluation is not listing pros and cons. Evaluation is weighing. It means recognising conditions and constraints, then judging which argument is stronger under which circumstances. For example, fiscal policy may be effective, but the multiplier depends on the marginal propensity to import. Supply side policy may work, but it involves time lags and uncertain outcomes. You are rewarded for realistic judgement, not ideal theory.

Finally, write a strong conclusion. Signpost clearly with “In the final analysis” or “In conclusion”. State your judgement, weigh the arguments, and specify the conditions. If you write “it depends”, you must state what it depends on. Do not introduce new points at this juncture.

If you apply this economics essays template properly, your essays will become more focused, coherent, contextual, and evaluative. You will also stop wasting time writing irrelevant paragraphs. When you write better economics essays, good and strong marks will follow.

Thank you for reading and cheers. 

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JC Economics Essays is my popular economics blog where I write about how to write better economics essays for the ‘A’ levels, as well as other academic levels. I have around 20 years of experience in teaching and learning about economics. From 2007 to Dec 2025, more than 120,000 readers have visited my economics essays blog. Thank you for reading, and I hope these useful economics materials help you. 

A Simple Overview of What is Cryptocurrency for A Level Economics Essays: A Simple, Exam-Focused Guide

Cryptocurrency (or crypto in short) has become a major topic in news headlines and everyday conversation. 

But in 'A' Level Economics, the key question is not whether crypto is trendy or risky. 

The key question is how cryptocurrency fits into economic concepts you already know, and how you can analyse and evaluate it clearly, like an economics exam essay. 

In simple terms, cryptocurrency is a digital asset that can be used for payments or held as a store of value. The most famous example is Bitcoin. Another major cryptocurrency is Ether, which is linked to the Ethereum network. 

Many cryptocurrencies are decentralised, meaning they are not issued by a government and do not rely on a central bank. Transactions are recorded on a blockchain, which is essentially a shared digital ledger that records transfers. For 'A' Level Economics, you do not need to be a computer science expert. If this topic comes up in economics case studies, what really matters is what crypto does in the economy, who it affects, and why and how governments respond to it in terms of economic policies or approaches. 

A useful way to start is to ask whether cryptocurrency is money. 

In Economics, money usually has three functions. It is a medium of exchange, a store of value, and a unit of account. 

Bitcoin can sometimes act as a medium of exchange, since some merchants accept it. But in most countries it is not widely accepted for everyday purchases. 

It can act as a store of value, since many people hold it rather than spend it. However, it is highly volatile, which weakens its usefulness for ordinary households. 

Crypto is rarely used as a unit of account. Goods and services are priced in dollars, not in Bitcoin or Ether, although some shops do accept crypto as payment. This is why most economists would say cryptocurrency is not fully functioning money in the way national currencies are. 

Now consider why cryptocurrencies became popular. 

From a demand perspective, many people buy crypto because they expect prices to rise. This is speculative demand. If people believe Bitcoin will keep increasing in price because supply is limited, they may buy it today and hold it. This can create self reinforcing price increases. 

Some buy crypto as a way to diversify their assets, especially if they view it as different from shares or bonds. Others are attracted to it because they distrust traditional banking systems or want a decentralised alternative. Some use crypto for cross border transfers because it can be faster than traditional bank transfers, and sometimes cheaper. 

In economics exam terms, crypto demand is strongly shaped by expectations, confidence, information, and herd behaviour. When sentiment turns positive, demand surges and prices rise sharply. When sentiment turns negative, demand collapses and prices come down sharply. 

From a supply perspective, different cryptocurrencies have different supply rules. 

Bitcoin has a fixed maximum supply, which is why many people call it “digital gold”. The argument is that if supply is limited, it cannot be inflated away in the same way as fiat currency. 

However, this argument must be evaluated carefully. Inflation in the economy is not only about the supply of money. Inflation depends on aggregate demand, aggregate supply, inflation expectations, and supply shocks. Even with limited supply, Bitcoin’s price can still swing wildly. A highly volatile asset cannot be a stable store of value for most people. This is why it is risky to assume that crypto automatically protects against inflation.

It is also important to recognise that crypto is not one single thing. Bitcoin was designed mainly as a digital currency and store of value. Ether is different. Ether is the main token used on the Ethereum blockchain, which supports decentralised applications, smart contracts, and many digital finance activities. This difference matters in analysis. 

Bitcoin demand often behaves like a speculative asset demand. 

Ether demand is shaped both by speculation and by usage, since it is linked to activity on the Ethereum network. From an economics perspective, that means you could consider Ether as having "derived demand" or possibly being considered "complements". 

That is why the economics of crypto is not just about money. It is also about technology platforms, networks, and demand for digital services.

Now consider crypto from a macroeconomic angle. Some people believe crypto threatens central banks and national currencies. In reality, in most countries, crypto adoption is not high enough to replace national currency. Most wages are still paid in legal tender, taxes are still paid in legal tender, and most transactions still rely on the banking system. But crypto can still create macroeconomic issues. If crypto ownership becomes widespread, price crashes can reduce household wealth and confidence, affecting consumption. If households invest large portions of savings into crypto, a crash can weaken financial wellbeing and reduce spending. This is one way crypto can affect aggregate demand indirectly.

Crypto can also reduce the effectiveness of monetary policy if it replaces traditional financial assets. Central banks influence spending by affecting interest rates, credit conditions, and expectations. If households and firms shift away from bank deposits towards crypto assets, the role of banks and the transmission mechanism may weaken. However, this depends on scale. 

In Singapore, the Monetary Authority of Singapore conducts monetary policy mainly through the exchange rate rather than interest rates. This is because Singapore is a small and open economy. Therefore, the key issue is not whether Bitcoin replaces the Singapore dollar. The key issue is whether crypto markets create financial instability, speculative bubbles, and confidence effects that spill over into the real economy.

This leads to a strong section for evaluation, which is market failure. 

Crypto markets can involve severe information failure. Many consumers do not fully understand what they are buying. They may not understand custody risks, hacking risks, scams, leverage, or market manipulation. There can be asymmetric information, where platforms and insiders know far more than retail consumers. This can lead to exploitative outcomes. 

There are also negative externalities. Some cryptocurrencies historically used proof of work mining, which requires large amounts of electricity and can contribute to environmental costs. This is why Bitcoin mining has been criticised for energy usage. However, evaluation requires precision. Not all cryptocurrencies use proof of work. Ethereum, for instance, shifted to a proof of stake system, which uses much less energy. So the environmental externality argument depends on which cryptocurrency and which system you are analysing.

Crypto may also be considered to be associated with criminal activity and perceived public harm. It could be argued that scams, fraud, and money laundering risks may exist, especially in unregulated environments. In Economics terms, these are negative externalities and also a failure of consumer protection in markets with poor information. When scams rise, trust falls. This reduces welfare and creates broader social costs. That is why governments and regulators often justify intervention.

Now analyse the policy response. Regulation has clear benefits. It can reduce fraud, require exchanges to meet standards, improve disclosure, and reduce unfair practices. It can also reduce contagion into the wider financial system. 

At the same time, regulation has costs. Over regulation can stifle innovation, raise compliance costs, and push activity into offshore or unregulated spaces, making monitoring more difficult. Regulation may also create a false sense of security. Some consumers may assume that a regulated platform means the asset itself is safe. But crypto remains risky because price volatility is a feature, not a bug. So the best approach is not extreme regulation or no regulation. The best approach is targeted, risk based regulation focusing on consumer protection, disclosure, financial stability, and prevention of illicit flows.

In the final analysis, cryptocurrency is best understood in 'A' Level Economics as a speculative asset market and a financial technology development, rather than fully functioning money. Bitcoin and Ether can sometimes perform some functions of money, but volatility and limited acceptance prevent them from being reliable currencies for daily life. The most convincing case for policy intervention arises when market failures are serious, such as information gaps, fraud risks, and potential spillovers into the broader economy. However, governments must strike a careful balance. Too little regulation harms consumers and trust. Too much regulation drives activity underground and reduces innovation. The strongest judgement is that crypto should be allowed to develop within a controlled framework that reduces consumer harm and systemic risk, while recognising that crypto remains a high risk asset that cannot be treated like a stable currency.

As a quick disclaimer, this particular post I have written on JC Economics Essays is meant purely as an analysis blog post for economics examination purposes (e.g. case studies, a brief overview of crypto, teaching and learning purposes) and is not meant as any investment advice or financial analysis. 

Thank you for reading and cheers.

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JC Economics Essays is my popular economics blog where I write about how to write better economics essays for the ‘A’ levels, as well as other academic levels. A former educator, I have around 20 years of experience in teaching and learning about economics. From 2007 to Dec 2025, more than 120,000 readers have visited my economics essays blog. Thank you for reading, and I hope these useful economics materials help you.

Understanding the 2026 H2 Economics Syllabus and Exam Format (A Simple Guide)

If you are studying H2 Economics for the 2026 A Levels, the first thing you must do is to understand how the Economics exam is structured. 

Many JC students spend too much time “studying Economics” in a broad way, without understanding what the syllabus is really testing. But in A Level Economics, the exam format is not just administrative detail. It directly shapes how you should study, practise, and write. 

The 2026 H2 Economics assessment comprises two compulsory written papers. This means that you must be prepared for both microeconomics and macroeconomics across the full syllabus, and you must be prepared for both case studies and economics essay writing. 

The two compulsory papers are Paper 1 (Case Studies) and Paper 2 (Economics Essays). 

Taken as a whole, the papers are designed to provide a good balance of questions across micro and macro. In other words, do not make the mistake of over-specialising. Some students wrongly assume they can focus on “micro only” or “macro only”. This is not how the exam works. 

For Paper 1, you will sit for two compulsory case studies. You must answer all questions for each case study. Since each case study carries 30 marks, Paper 1 constitutes 40 percent of the total A Level grade. This is significant.

Each case study will consist of two to three pages of data, and this data can be presented in textual, numerical, or graphical form. Each case study will present contemporary, multifaceted economic issues or policies, and these issues may come from one or more themes in the syllabus. This is why students who study in isolated topics often struggle. Real case studies do not stay neatly within one chapter. You will need to connect concepts across the syllabus. 

A pro tip from an actual professional: I recall my Head of Department commenting once that the case study questions would have been set around 2 years earlier, so that very likely means that economic issues from 2023/2024/2025 would come out in the 2026 Economics exams. 

You must also understand the nature of Paper 1 questions. The data for each case study will be followed by six or seven part questions, including sub parts. These questions require you to apply relevant economic concepts, theories, and principles in analysing, synthesising, and evaluating economic issues, perspectives, or policies, with reference to the data provided. In other words, the case study is not a comprehension passage. The data are there to support analysis and judgement, not to be repeated. 

About 12 marks of each set of case study questions will be for data response questions, and about 18 marks will be for higher order questions. Accordingly, you should treat Paper 1 as applied Economics, where you are expected to reason from evidence and arrive at clear economic conclusions. The key point here is that higher order thinking is central, not optional. This includes judgement, weighing, and recognising limitations. So for case studies, you must be prepared to evaluate, not just explain.

Now let us move to Paper 2. 

Paper 2 is the economics essays paper. There will be six essay questions in total, of which candidates are required to answer a total of three. 

(To read more on the topic of "A Complete and Comprehensive Checklist for Your JC Economics Essay for 2026", click here.)

Paper 2 carries 75 marks, with a duration of 2 hours 30 minutes, and constitutes 60 percent of the total grade. This means Paper 2 is the bigger component. If you want to secure an A for Economics at A levels, your economics essay skills must be strong.

However, there is an important exam technique point. Although there are six questions, remember that you are not answering all six. Candidates are required to answer a total of three essay questions. One must be from Section A, one must be from Section B, and the third can be from either Section A or Section B. 

This matters because it shapes your revision strategy. 

You cannot gamble by revising only “your favourite” topics. But at the same time, it is wise to develop strategic depth in certain topics so that you have flexibility when selecting the third question. 

Section A focuses mainly on micro. Three micro essay questions will be set, and candidates must answer at least one question from Section A. 

Section B focuses mainly on macro. Three macro essay questions will be set, and candidates must answer at least one question from Section B. 

Each essay question carries 25 marks. 

Part (a) often tests whether you can explain a mechanism clearly and accurately. Part (b) often tests whether you can evaluate, weigh, and arrive at a defensible judgement.

For Paper 2, the assessment objectives matter again. Most of the marks require more than definitions and diagram explanations. The examiners want analysis, application, and evaluation. Candidates are expected to apply relevant economic concepts, theories, and principles to analyse issues and evaluate perspectives or policies. They should synthesise and construct coherent arguments to arrive at well reasoned judgements and decisions. In simple terms, they are testing whether you can think like an economist and write like an economist.

So what should you take away from the 2026 H2 Economics syllabus and exam structure?

First, do not treat Paper 1 as an easier paper. Paper 1 is 40 percent of the grade, and it is still designed to test higher order thinking. Train yourself to move from data handling to analysis to judgement, and always anchor your answers in the evidence given. 

Second, understand that Paper 2 is not just about memorising content. Essay questions are designed to test reasoning quality. If you want the higher bands, you must analyse and evaluate properly. This includes weighing arguments, considering time horizons, and stating limitations and conditions clearly. You must also manage the two part structure of each essay question properly, so that part (a) is precise and part (b) is evaluative and well reasoned.

Third, balance matters. You must be competent in both micro and macro. Since Paper 2 forces you to answer at least one micro question and at least one macro question, you cannot ignore either.

Fourth, your practice must match the exam. This means you should not only practise full essays. You should also practise planning essays quickly, applying context, writing evaluative conclusions, and writing logical, step-by-step, clear chains of reasoning. For Paper 1, you should practise data extraction together with economic interpretation, and you must practise writing higher order answers rather than short descriptive responses. You should get used to case studies that combine multiple economic themes, because this is exactly how real case studies are designed. 

In the final analysis, the 2026 H2 Economics syllabus is not asking you to be a walking economics textbook. It is asking you to apply economic concepts clearly, analyse issues logically, and evaluate with judgement. If you revise with this exam structure in mind, your writing will improve, your answers will be more focused, and your Economics marks will rise naturally. 

Thank you for reading and cheers.

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JC Economics Essays is my popular economics blog where I write about how to write better economics essays for the ‘A’ levels Economics examinations, as well as other academic levels. A former educator, I have around 20 years of experience in teaching and learning about economics. From 2007 to Dec 2025, more than 120,000 readers have visited my economics essays blog. Thank you for reading, and I hope these useful economics materials help you.

A Complete and Comprehensive Checklist for Your JC Economics Essay for 2026!

Before you decide whether your economics essay is “good”, you must first check whether your essay is “correct”. Many essays look impressive and contain plenty of Economics, but still score badly because they fail the most basic test: they do not answer the question properly. 

So the first thing to check is whether you fully understood the requirements of the economics essay question. For example, if the question says “discuss”, your essay must cover both sides and show balanced analysis. If it says “evaluate” or “to what extent”, your essay must go beyond explanation and include judgement. 

Also check whether you identified the correct context and scope. For example, if the question is on Singapore, your entire essay should be anchored in Singapore’s policy context and structural constraints, not generic textbook writing. If the question is asking about one policy instrument, you must not drift into writing about all policies you can remember. 

After every paragraph, ask yourself whether you clearly linked that paragraph back to the question. If you cannot do so, the paragraph is likely irrelevant, or at least under applied. 

Check whether you met the thinking or evaluative requirements of the essay. Economics essays are not merely memory exercises. They are also thinking exercises. This means you must show analysis, and if required, evaluation. If your essay reads like notes, where you list points without building chains of reasoning, you are not meeting the thinking requirements. 

Check whether you defined terms and explained your points logically and clearly. For every major argument, check whether you included a correct economic mechanism. You should be able to trace a clean chain of reasoning from cause to effect, and from effect back to the question requirements. Also check your use of key terms. Economics is strict with language, and the examiner will penalise conceptual imprecision. For example, “increase in demand” is not the same as “increase in quantity demanded”. 

Next, check whether the points you raised are contextual. This is where average economics essays become excellent economics essays. Many essays contain the correct frameworks, such as AD-AS, elasticity, market failure, or policy analysis, but they are written in a generic way that could apply to any country. If the question is clearly situated in Singapore, then generic writing will be penalised because it shows weak application. You must check whether you have anchored your points in Singapore’s context. Singapore is a small and open economy, with high import dependence and leakages, strong exposure to external demand shocks, and a distinct macro policy framework where the exchange rate is the key monetary policy lever. If you do not integrate these points when appropriate, your essay will sound like a template. A high scoring essay must sound like it was written for that question, in that context, and not recycled from past papers.

After that, check whether you provided adequate, relevant, clear examples to illustrate your points. Examples proof of application. A real example is specific and functional, meaning it strengthens the argument and makes the explanation more convincing. You must check whether your examples match your points. Do not give examples that merely mention a policy without connecting it to the mechanism you are explaining. Also check whether your examples are realistic and factually defensible. 

Check whether you made use of relevant diagrams to explain your points, and whether your diagrams were actually used properly. A diagram is only useful if it is integrated into the explanation. If you draw a diagram and then write paragraphs that do not refer to it, you are wasting your time. Check whether your diagram is correctly labelled and reflects the correct economic mechanism. Your axes must be correct, your curves must be correctly labelled, and the direction of shifts must be right. More importantly, you must check whether you explained what the diagram shows, including what happens to the key variables and why. 

Check whether you analysed the issue from a variety of perspectives. This is what often distinguishes the top band scripts. Many students only analyse from one direction. A strong economics essay deliberately considers stakeholders, time horizons, limitations of the policies. You should check whether you examined the issue from consumer versus producer perspectives when relevant, or domestic versus foreign sector impacts, or short term versus long term effects. You should also check whether you looked at internal versus external outcomes. For example, a policy may improve domestic welfare but harm export competitiveness. Or a policy may work in the short run but create inefficiencies in the long run. Top students show that they can analyse trade offs. 

Check whether your paragraphs are well structured and adequately developed. Every paragraph must be complete. It should contain a point, explanation, analysis, and application. The examiner must be able to see what your point is and how you developed it. You should also check whether your essay has a strong logical flow. Do the paragraphs build on one another? Or do they feel like separate mini essays? 

Finally, check whether you wrote a well-reasoned, evaluative conclusion. Signpost your conclusion with "In the final analysis" or "In conclusion". Your evaluative conclusion is not meant to repeat your essay. It is meant to provide judgement. A strong conclusion answers the question directly, weighs the arguments, and states the conditions under which one argument outweighs another. If you are writing “it depends”, then you must specify exactly what it depends on. If you are giving a judgement, then you must justify why. A good conclusion also avoids introducing new points. 

If you use this checklist properly, you will notice something important. 

When you write more relevantly, more clearly, more contextually, and more evaluatively, your score rises naturally. 

The goal is to write better. And then the marks will follow. 

Thank you for reading and cheers. 

*** ***

JC Economics Essays is my popular economics blog where I write about how to write better economics essays for the A levels, as well as other academic levels. To date, more than 120,000 readers have visited this blog. Thank you for reading, and I hope these useful materials help you. 

“The Central Problem of Economics (CPE) is about scarcity and choice.” Is this statement true? [25 marks]

This paper examines the central problem of economics (CPE). 

One fundamental assumption of economics is that man’s wants are unlimited but the world’s resources are limited. 

In economics, resources refer to the factors of production of land, labour, capital, and entrepreneurship. 

Land refers to natural resources, such as oil, gas, minerals, and water. 

Labour refers to human effort and skill. 

Capital refers to goods that produce other goods, like any machine or equipment that can produce other things. It does not solely refer to financial capital or money or finance. 

Entrepreneurship is the ability to take risks, organise, and plan production effectively, and coordinate the other factors of production in the pursuit of profits. 

All countries have a finite amount of these factors of production of land, labour, capital, and entrepreneurship. 

Based on these assumptions, it is clear that it is not possible to produce all that we want, given that the factors of production are limited while man's wants are unlimited. Some goods will have to be sacrificed to obtain more of other goods. 

Put another way, this situation is one of scarcity, and scarcity necessitates choice. 

This means that a rational choice has to be made of what to produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce. 

Since something has to be forgone, there is a "cost" involved. In a world of scarcity, there is a cost of sacrifice involved in satisfying a particular want. 

This cost is called opportunity cost, and is defined cost of the next best alternative foregone to satisfy the particular want.

The way in which a free market mechanism with minimal government intervention solves the CPE is through the price mechanism.  

The intersection of demand and supply determines the market equilibrium (or market clearing) price and output, which will resolve the issues of what to produce (by signalling the price or value of the good), how to produce (producers will ensure they find cost-effective methods of production), and for whom to produce (those who can afford it). 

In conclusion, the statement “The Central Problem of Economics (CPE) is about scarcity and choice” is true to a large extent, because this is the main problem that all demand and supply models are intended to address, and which all economics students are putting under the microscope. 

I think that although this issue is generally quite simplified as a heuristic, the CPE is indeed about scarcity necessitating rational, logical choices and that is what economics is all about.  

*** ***

JC ECONOMICS ESSAYS Tutor's Comments: Well written, interesting and insightful. Brilliant effort! Do please think of how you would draw and label the PPC/PPF properly? Do also think about other alternative ways of approaching this JC economics question. Other than this economic approach, how else could this economics essay have been answered? Thank you for reading this sample essay, and cheers. 

JC Economics Essays is my popular economics blog where I write about how to write better economics essays for the ‘A’ levels, as well as other academic levels. A former educator, I have around 20 years of experience in teaching and learning about economics. From 2007 to Dec 2025, more than 120,000 readers have visited my economics essays blog. Thank you for reading, and I hope these useful economics materials help you.

JC Economics Essays is back!

A friend, data, and data analytics brought me back to continue writing in JC Economics Essays again

Story time! 

I had stopped blogging on this site for a long time, and gone on to do many other things with my life. 

But one day, I bumped into a friend (who was a former student). 

He said, somewhat melodramatically, "Did you know that your economics essay blog, the uncreatively named one, saved my economics grade, and probably my life?" 

"You must be joking," I said. 

"No, no, today I am doing data analytics and economics turned out to be so important in it!" 

His parting shot to me was, "You should continue that blog, man. It helped me understand economics, or at the very least, pass my H2 and H3. You saved lives. Maybe you can continue to save lives." 

I went back to have a look at the data that Blogger had, and extracted some data. 

Did I really help many people? I knew students and undergrads were reading my blog, but just how many were there? 

It turns out, that over the past 10 years, I have had about 344,000 views of my economics blog. Put differently, on average it works out to be around 34,000 views per year. 

(This is despite the fact that I had stopped writing for many years.)

From 2018 to 2021, there had been a decline in the number of readers, as I had dropped in the search rankings. 

Well, I thought to myself, it was only to be expected. I had stopped writing for many years, and in the meantime, many other economics writers, bloggers, and tutors had appeared on the scene. 

It was getting to be a crowded market (sorry, occupational hazard that from time to time, I might spew economics terms). 

But when I did post economics articles or write ups, there were thousands of readers (probably hardworking or desperate students!), with a few occasions of more than 6,000 views a month. At its peak, this humble economics essays blog managed to get 8,500 views. 

I think most people cannot claim that they get that kind of readership from an economics blog. 

Since the visitor count showed around 109,000 unique visitors over a longer period of time, I guess that it was fairly certain that each person reading the blog read more than 3.2 articles each. 

The top economics essays post was "Explain the main types of unemployment in Singapore" with a whopping ~8,000 views. 

And the Central Problem of Economics received ~5,000 views. 

While there were times that I wrote articles on the US and UK economy, JC Economics Essays is mainly targeted at students and undergraduates in Singapore (although, I am delighted if I can help people from around the world). 

Did I hit the target? 

It turns out that the majority of the page views do come from Singapore (230,000 out of 344,000 views, or two-thirds of page views), though surprisingly there are many from Russia and other parts of the world. 

Maybe people around the world do want to learn more about Singapore's economy... or our A level economics examinations. Or perhaps H1, H2, and H3 intrigues them, and they end up viewing this website.  

Blogger also had this visualisation, which was interesting. Chrome and Safari provided the greatest pageviews by browser, but I learnt new things like Opera, SamsungBrowser, and EzineArticlesLinkScanner. The Internet does teach me new things each day. 

There were other useful data that I learnt, but to conclude this post: 

I was happy to bump into a friend and former student. 

And I am happy to have helped him in his economics journey at A levels. 

Because he mentioned data, analytics, and visualisations, I ended up looking at Blogger for data and this post was born. 

I suppose it is a long and roundabout way of saying:

I am back! 

And I will be posting on various current economics topics, including cryptocurrency (which has greatly interested me and many, many others). 

I will also be posting on university admissions and scholarships since these are important to students and undergraduates, and I have a wealth of knowledge to share. These articles have been very useful for students too. 

And finally, from time to time, I will be posting on writing economics essays (which, after all, is what this economics blog is all about), including how to write, how to make an argument, how to write an evaluative conclusion, and how to read and interpret economic data. 

Thank you for reading, and cheers. 

 

JC Economics Essays

JC Economics Essays is my popular economics blog where I write about how to write better economics essays for the ‘A’ levels, as well as other academic levels. A former educator, I have many years of experience in teaching and learning about economics. Thank you for reading, and I hope these useful economics materials help you.

How to Win a Scholarship to University, part 3

How to Win a Scholarship to University, part 3

Recap of previous posts on how to win a scholarship 

In the previous two posts here on JC Economics Essays on how to successfully attain an undergraduate scholarship to university, I blogged about being prepared and ready for opportunities by starting early, studying hard, being polite and professional to teachers, tutors, and school administrators, and taking on leadership and volunteer or community positions, and how to plan for a scholarship to university. There were many questions that students would have to consider before applying for any scholarship (for a full recap, read this post on planning for a scholarship). 

Now, the next step is to craft a perfect personal statement, often in response to an essay prompt or some guidelines or guiding questions.  

Crafting the Perfect Personal Statement

How do we craft the perfect personal statement that would help a student gain entry into a prestigious university? 

This post here on my JC Economics Essays website will share some tips and techniques for drafting an excellent personal statement. 

In this post, we will refer to a personal essay, a statement of intent, and other forms of writing as a personal statement (to me, that is the most common way of referring to this specific type of writing). 

While no one can guarantee that a student's personal statement would be the best (naturally), and it often depends on what the student had done earlier in his academic life (remember what I said about getting strong grades, leadership positions, and volunteer or community work experience), one can always make the best personal statement one can - and hopefully that would be able to impress the assessors. 

In other words, write as best as you can - and hope for the best. The work that you have done will be able to help you. Your essay will hopefully be lit up by the brilliance of your achievements and contributions. 

First and foremost, before you start writing your personal statement - have a plan. 

This is similar to my previous post. 

Have a plan. 

And as I said before, if students fail to plan, then they plan to fail. 

Determine what the question is asking, and then outline your answer. What do you need to include in the response? What do you plan to argue, explain, and give examples for? 

If the question is asking about defining moments in your life, reflect on a few defining moments and lay them out on paper. 

If the prompt is asking about your experiences and knowledge of PPE - Politics, Philosophy, and Economics - then focus your thoughts and ideas on Politics, Philosophy, and Economics. 

If the guiding questions are more general, and asking you to focus on some ideas that have intrigued you, think about what books or articles you have read that really impressed you, impacted you, motivated you, or affected you. If the topic is on economics books - be sure that you start reflecting on economics books or journals that you have read. 

Second, be sure to bring in your strengths and knowledge into your response. 

This is a point worth repeating. 

The whole point of the personal statement is for you to show or demonstrate your strengths and knowledge into your response. The administrators and assessors cannot read your mind, so you will have to show them your strengths and knowledge. 

One way is to do it through citing your experiences, such as internships you have attended, relevant courses that you have taken, or volunteer work in a related field that you have done. 

If you are applying for law school, writing about the strengths you found in yourself while working at an intern in a fast-paced law firm would be useful; if you are applying for an economics undergraduate degree, then write about the online learning you have done on Keynesian economics, and what you have learnt about the difference between Monetarism, Classical Economics, and Keynesian Economics; and if you are applying for a social policy or sociology degree, be sure to write about your extensive volunteer work and how that taught you about income inequality or inequity in society. 

Through these examples, bring out your strengths, your good points, and the areas of knowledge or expertise that you may have. 

Notice that this really depends on the preparation work that you should have done before planning for universities and scholarships - please refer to parts 1 and 2 which I wrote earlier. The useful materials there will help you. 

Third, edit relentlessly. 

I have had former students write their personal statement once, and then they wanted me to have a look. Much of their writing was woefully inadequate for entry to university. Edit, edit, and edit again. 

If you have written a first draft, just be sure that you know that it can be better. 

Remember: that which is written without much care is seldom read with pleasure. 

The greater the pleasure you get from reading something, the greater the effort that went into it. 

When editing, there are many things to take note of:

Did you write in the right tone and register? Are you being too informal, or overly formal? 

How accurate are the terms and phrases you are using in the personal statement? Were you the Chairman, or the Assistant Chairman? Did you win the Gold Award or the Silver Award? 

Did you clear all the typos and spelling mistakes? 

Have you ensured that there is consistency in the terms used? 

And a common point often missed out is - have you used the right language? 

If you are applying for a college degree in the USA, please write in American English. 

If you are writing a personal statement meant for a UK university, please write in British English. 

If you are writing a personal statement for the University Scholars Programme in Singapore - whether the NUS or the NTU one - then be sure to use British English as well, as that is what we use in Singapore. 

Remember the Biblical phrase: Those who can be trusted in little things can be trusted in great things. Essentially, if you have not used terms consistently, and cannot even write properly, how can the reader or assessor trust you? 

Fourth, emphasise meaning and significance, but be sure not to overstate your case.

This is important. 

Many students do not know how to emphasise the meaning and significance of what they have done. 

Consider the following examples of weak sentences (from actual students):

I was Chairperson of ABC committee, I was Vice President of XYZ sport, and I participated in the JJJ seminar in YYYY year. 

I was selected class Chairperson and I was tasked to do many activities. 

I am deeply interested in accountancy and want to change the world. 

The first sentence is a pure listing - where is the meaning and significance? A stronger way of writing would be: 

I was Chairperson of ABC committee, which I established in YYYY year. Even though I spent a lot of time starting up that new committee, I also played football and eventually rose through the ranks to become VP of the XYZ sporting team, which won three gold medals under my leadership. I headed the team in the JJJ seminar in YYYY, and we won third place for the first time in school history. 

The second sentence is weak because it comes across as passive and insignificant. Consider this instead: 

I was chosen to be class Chairperson in recognition of my contributions to the class, and I led many activities and initiatives, such as ... 

The third is just interesting... but could be stronger and better. In the end, I rewrote my student's entire personal statement:

I am deeply interested in studying accountancy at university because my father is an accountant and I want to follow in his footsteps. He once told me that accountancy could change the world. I was intrigued by his unusual comment. How could accountancy be as important or relevant as economics or finance? And my father said to me... 

Fourth, ask people who know to help you - but take their advice with caution. 

Always remember that there is great value in asking people to help you. 

They can share their advice and knowledge. They can point out areas for improvement. They can share ideas and pointers. And if they have applied to the same scholarship before, or the same university course, they can help you. Do your research and interview people; ask them for tips and tricks; and learn from others. 

But do take all advice with caution. 

Some students told me that they were told to use big words and fancy phrases. While that may work with some US universities, it does not work with UK universities as the British are often more understated and subtle. 

Yet others have told me that the personal statement should be full of sob stories and problems that one had to overcome. Yes, there is some value in showing good values of resilience and strength. 

However, do not overdo this. Also, if many people write like this, how do you differentiate yourself from the rest of them? 

What is your unique selling point if you are another one of the sob stories? 

Fifth, respect convention, but be unique and differentiated

Also, while it is convention to write in the conclusion "I would appreciate the opportunity to study at your fine institution", and some coaches and trainers even use similar phrases to coach and train their students, consider other ways of writing. 

There is nothing wrong with convention. However, be unique even while you are conventional. 

"Studying in London is a dream come true, and I hope to be given a chance to do so" could be reframed as "London is an exciting city - studying at the London School of Economics would be a double-win for me", which is more unique and edgy. 

Or perhaps "at your fine institution" could be phrased as "As the famous economist Keynes studied in this college and benefited from a first-rate education, it would be my privilege to have this same honour". 

You get what I mean - yes, by all means stick to convention, but what is your unique selling point? 

What is your unique way of writing and communicating? What is "you" about this? 

It is also convention to say that you are reading Economics because you are interested in it. I think everyone would say that (some are actually telling the truth). 

Do not write "I am interested in economics". A better and stronger way of saying it is "Reading Milton Friedman's book on XYZ opened my eyes to some economics topics, and sparked my interest in the subject". 

More information will be coming in future posts. 

For more tips and techniques on how to raise your chances of getting a top scholarship to university, stay tuned for more. Thank you for reading, and cheers! 

JC Economics Essays -- I am currently writing on how to win a scholarship to university, for young and budding scholars to read undergraduate degrees. Thank you for reading and I hope these materials help you. 

How to Win a Scholarship to University, part 2

How to Win a Scholarship to University, part 2

In the previous post on how to win an undergraduate scholarship to enter university, I emphasised the importance of starting early, studying hard and ensuring good grades as a bare minimum, being polite and considerate to your teachers and school administrators, and taking on leadership roles and doing community service or voluntary work in the larger community. 

This advice or guidance is useful as a starting point.  

It can also be simply summed up simply as being ready, and as I heard Les Brown say before:

It is better to be prepared and not have one, than to have an opportunity and not be prepared. 

After doing the hard work of studying hard, being prepared and attentive in class, attending seminars, lectures, tutorials, and lessons - it is time to make all the preparation count. 

What is the next step on the way to winning a scholarship? 

The next step is called planning. 

As the famous saying goes, if you fail to plan, you plan to fail. 

It's so important that I have to state it again. 

After you have done all the basics and have started early, you now need to plan and think through what you will need to win a scholarship to university. 

There are basically a few important things that you have to plan for to ensure that you are well-equipped and ready to apply for a scholarship to university. 

The best way of think of this stage is to think of the following questions, which will help you make your plans. 

Think of these questions as a checklist for your planning purposes. 

First, what university would you like to go to? 

This is not an easy question to answer at all. 

There are famous and branded universities in the USA, for example Ivy League universities. 

Ivy League colleges are considered the most prestigious in the USA. There are eight total colleges that are considered Ivy League, namely Brown University, Harvard University, Cornell University, Princeton University, Dartmouth University, Yale University, and Columbia University, and the University of Pennsylvania. Of all the institutions of higher learning, these elite universities are considered the most outstanding and sought-after.

There are also famous universities in the UK, like Oxbridge (i.e., Oxford or Cambridge) and other Russell Group universities, such as the London School of Economics and Political Science, King's College London, Imperial College, the University of Manchester, and so on. According to the Russell Group’s website, the 24 member universities (sometimes colleges) are world-class, research-intensive universities with their own unique and distinguishing characteristics, history, and ethos. The commonality is that these universities are committed to maintaining the best research, an outstanding teaching and learning experience for students, and unrivalled links with local and national business and the public sector. 

Singapore also has many strong local universities with global reach and impact - for example, the National University of Singapore (NUS) (and also its Duke-NUS Medical School and Yale-NUS College); Nanyang Technological University (NTU) (as well as the National Institute of Education, which sits within NTU); Singapore Management University (SMU); Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD); Singapore Institute of Technology (SIT); and the Singapore University of Social Sciences (SUSS). 

Some universities are stronger than others in certain degree courses; for example, LSE is very strong in Economics and is reputed to be one of the best in it. 

This brings us to our next question: 

Second, what university course would you like to apply for? 

There are many courses and degree programmes - double degree programmes; multi-disciplinary programmes; University Scholars Programmes; majors; minors; honours; and even non-honours. Bachelors of Arts; of Science; of Social Sciences. 

What university course would you like to apply for? 

What meets your talents, skills, and interests? 

What will be useful and helpful to you in the long run? 

There are many subjects. 

Since this website is basically about economics, the university degrees most related to economics are:

Mathematics, Mathematical Economics, Econometrics, Political Science, Business Administration, Management, and pure Economics programmes. 

What interests you? 

What would you find fitting, relevant, useful, and helpful to you? 

Third, which scholarship programmes are you intending to apply for? 

Similarly, this is not an easy question to answer at all. 

There are many types of scholarships, for example, private sector scholarships and government or public service scholarships. 

There are bond-free scholarships, and other scholarships which are bonded (i.e., there is an obligation to work for an employer for a certain period of time, should you take up the scholarship). 

There are partial scholarships, which do not pay for everything, and there are full scholarships, which pay for everything. Even the organisations, institutions, and services that offer scholarships are different. 

Fourth, what do you need for your application?

You will need references or testimonials; 

to deal with the application process, whether it is through the Common App or UCAS; 

to write a personal statement (often more than just one personal statement, each designed or targeted for a different target audience and with a different purpose); 

to take the SAT or ACT aptitude tests or entrance examinations, if any are needed; to prepare for an interview or even a series of interviews; and 

visa applications, and the list goes on. 

Think through and plan accordingly - what do you need for your university and scholarship application?

On that note, when planning, do remember: the timelines matter. 

They really do. 

Some applications are made before, and some are after, yet others are concurrent and simultaneous. 

You cannot report SAT scores that you have not attained, and you certainly want to find out if the university you are applying for accepts provisional scores or preliminary results from your preliminary examinations. 

If you want your teacher to write you a reference or testimonial, you will need to plan that out in advance:

Who will you ask? 

How long do they need? 

And how will they submit it, and will that take time? 

Buffer in more time. More time, more time. 

Don't do things last minute. 

In other words, think of what I said earlier - if you fail to plan, you plan to fail. 

Plan and think through what you need, and you are yet another step closer to success. 

While there is no guarantee that you will be successful in a scholarship application, each step you take helps you get closer and closer to your dream degree and aspiration to be a scholar. 

Thank you for reading and stay tuned for more. Thanks! 

JC Economics Essays

How to Win a Scholarship to University, part 1

How to Win a Scholarship to University, part 1 

Prologue and Preamble

Several years ago, I won a scholarship to read Economics as a major at university, at the undergraduate degree level.

Also, more recently, in the past few years I have been dealing with economics students - and other students - wanting to read degrees in the US, the UK, and Singapore.

I hope that these experiences will come in useful in helping students - and their parents - understand what is needed to win a scholarship to college/university or have a fighting chance to enter a top, competitive degree. 

In preparing for the college scholarship, there was a lot of preparation that I did, and I'm going to document these in a series of articles starting with this one. 

And as I mentioned, when I was still in the education service, I dealt with many students' scholarship applications, references, and recommendations, and even helped more than a fair share get into universities all around the world. 

In today's post - we start with the very simple basics

In today's post, we prepare for undergraduate degree scholarships by starting - not with the scholarship preparation itself, but by going all the way back to your time before you even thought of entering university. 

Yes, it all starts before you even think about a degree. 

Way back, when you are in secondary school, or high school, and then in Junior College or in whatever school you are in just before you apply for university - that is the time that you prepare for your scholarship. 

Starting early is the secret

It is that simple, but this secret is often misunderstood or neglected, which can be fatal to scholarship chances. 

In other words, the scholarship preparation takes place way before you even think about what UK university or college, or which US university, or whichever university in Asia or in Singapore. 

Think about this important insight, and reflect on it for a moment. 

There have been many instances when former economics students of mine have not worked hard at their studies, not done the proper preparation or achieved the right extra-curricula activities, and then at the last moment - when it is time to apply to universities through the Common App [this is one traditional way students apply to study in the United States] or UCAS [the Universities and Colleges Admissions Services, which is the the traditional way that students apply to study in the United Kingdom] - they want my help. 

Nay, they demand my help. 

Write me a recommendation letter, they say. 

Help me with my personal statement, they say. Edit it, proofread it, enhance it, they say. 

Help me with my CCA record - the co-curricula activities record - they say. 

Often, I cannot help them. 

Not because I don't want to, but because they have not helped themselves. 

As the saying goes, God helps those who help themselves - well, not that I am God, but this is a useful and relevant saying.  

Working backwards, this can be quite instructive.

It tells you that the preparatory work to be done in winning scholarships or fighting to enter a top degree course is not merely in the interview preparation, the application preparation, or even the wonderfully-worded, Shakespearean-standard personal statement that conveys your unique and special personality, talents, and achievements. 

It tells you that it boils down to the simple basics, right at the start, way before the degree. 

Did you do three important things? 

When you were in school/high school/Junior college, did you do the following?

First, did you study hard and achieve good grades? 

Good grades are the price of admission to any university course or degree, not just economics degrees which can be quite competitive. 

Some of my former students wanted to study law, but they failed their General Paper or History examinations in junior college. 

Now, how is that going to work? 

If one is unable to score in much more manageable examinations, it will be a bit challenging to get into really world-class universities, and certainly challenging to receive a scholarship.

How can one do a law degree when one cannot even write a couple of essays? Law degrees are phenomenally challenging. 

Secondly, were you nice, collaborative, approachable, and polite to your teachers, Heads of Department, or Principals? 

Or were you a trouble-maker, a rascal, or naughty girl? 

This sounds funny, but is not a joke. It carries a much more significant point. 

When I was a much younger economics tutor, there were many times some of my students skipped classes, played truant, were rude to me, or did not do their projects or homework. 

One even plagiarised his Project Work assignment, while another did not undergo counselling or psychological evaluation because "he could not work with his friends and wanted to live in the past". 

Many, to be fair, were polite, approachable, and good students, but a few really tested my patience and kindness. Some of the good students even reminded me of the good in mankind, as they were involved, participatory, and understanding people with a heart for the vulnerable, poor, and the meek. 

After all my students had received their school leaving examinations, they invariably asked me for a reference. The students who were less than perfect asked for a reference too. 

Unbelievable. Simply unbelievable. 

References can be very important when it comes to applying for universities, especially for competitive courses or degrees. 

How important would a reference be for a scholarship or degree application? 

One former student stands out in my memory, from the mists of time, from ages long gone. 

S often fell asleep in class, and on several occasions lied to me, her teacher.

She managed to achieve a grade B in spite of all this, probably through no talent of her own. 

But more important was this fact - one day, she asked me to write her a letter, so that she could use it for degree admission. 

I was kind and cautioned her against this unwise move. "You may want to find another person to do that for you."

"No one is willing to, and I know you write references. Could you please help me?"

"I must tell you that I am honest. It is not going to work out well for you."

"But I really need a reference. It says here, two referees needed. I need you to help me..."

Well, she asked for it. 

I wrote it. 

It was something along these lines and a lot more detailed (and I cannot believe the fact that I can remember this after so many years): 

"I have known S in the capacity of economics tutor for ABC number of years. 

While S has achieved a commendable result in Economics, attaining a B for her H2 A level examinations, she has not paid attention in class the whole year long. There are no reasonable explanations for her lack of attendance. 

On several occasions, she has shown less than perfect integrity and has been known to bend the truth. 

She has not been promoted to the next level in the year YYYY. 

On balance, while she has shown some improvement in her studies and attitude, I would not recommend her for your course, your institution, or a scholarship."

The lesson here is that you must learn how to treat your teachers, Heads of Departments, and Principals - including Vice Principals - with respect. 

They - write - your - testimonials - and - references. 

But please don't do it purely for the reference. Please be better.

Remember the Golden Rule. Treat people as you would want to be treated.

Would you say nice things for a person who was rude, arrogant, problematic, entitled, or troublesome? 

Or would you help someone achieve a scholarship if that person was kind, polite, friendly, approachable, and reasonable? If they were interesting, intelligent, and human people? 

Your teachers are only human, and they have integrity. Don't make them tell lies on your behalf. 

Be so good and commendable that people want to help you and make you the success that you can be. 

Simply, help your teacher help you. 

Did you take on leadership roles or do volunteer service?

This is very important.

Clearly, to apply for a scholarship or even for a competitive degree course, you need to demonstrate leadership qualities or show community spirit. These are important aspects that colleges and universities look for all around the world. 

Leadership roles are useful and relevant experiences, because they can provide you with talking points for your scholarship interview, if you are successful in application.

Also, through leadership positions, you gain invaluable experiences - teamwork, collaboration, motivational skills, and resilience. 

And resilience - the never say die attitude - is critically important in the 21st century. Also, it has to be pointed out that degree courses can be quite challenging, and the ability to fight on, press on, and never give up with help, not just with scholarships, but with attaining a first class or distinction degree. 

Community work, volunteer service, Overseas Community Involvement Programmes (OCIP), and Values in Action - all these, and more, are important too. 

Do you contribute to the community? 

Do you contribute to something larger than yourself? 

And what have you learnt and experienced from doing so? 

These will all contribute to an important portfolio of work and experiences that will help you in your degree application and scholarship chances. 

Summary and Recap

The most important takeaway for my first post on how to win a scholarship to university is the advice - start early. 

And start early by studying hard and making sure you excel in your studies. 

Treat your teachers with kindness and respect, for they write your recommendations. But please don't treat them nicely only because of the testimonials, recommendations, and references. 

And have leadership roles and positions in your co-curricula activities and if you can stomach it, also do community work or volunteer work, whether local or overseas. 

Stay tuned for more. 

Thank you for reading and cheers. 

JC Economics Essays

(P.S. On a side note, several years ago, I also won a postgraduate degree scholarship to undertake my Master's degree at the London School of Economics, but since applying for a Master's programme is somewhat different from an undergraduate degree, I could explore talking about my experiences, tips, and pointers in future posts if my change in direction for JC Economics Essays is successful. 

Thank you in advance for your kind support! 

And, well, if this undergraduate or degree series does not take off, then perhaps my true calling resides elsewhere and not in blogging.)